Chapter 9 THE MAKING OF REGIONAL CULTURES

The Cheras And The Development Of Malayalam

Regional identities are often linked to language. The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram, established in the 9th century in present-day Kerala, is a significant example. The rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions, marking an early use of a regional language in official records in the subcontinent. Simultaneously, Chera rulers also drew upon Sanskrit traditions. The temple theater of Kerala, originating in this period, incorporated stories from Sanskrit epics. Early Malayalam literary works were heavily influenced by Sanskrit, and texts like the 14th-century Lilatilakam explored grammar and poetics in Manipravalam, a blend of Sanskrit and Malayalam.

Rulers And Religious Traditions: The Jagannatha Cult

Regional cultures often developed around religious traditions. The cult of Jagannatha at Puri, Orissa, exemplifies this. The wooden images of the deity, still made by local tribal people, suggest that Jagannatha was initially a local god later identified with Vishnu. In the 12th century, King Anantavarman of the Ganga dynasty erected a temple for Jagannatha at Puri. Later, in 1230, King Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity, proclaiming himself as the god's "deputy." As the temple grew in importance as a pilgrimage center, its social and political influence increased. Rulers who conquered Orissa, including the Mughals, Marathas, and the English East India Company, sought control over the temple, believing it would legitimize their rule.

The Rajputs And Traditions Of Heroism

The region of present-day Rajasthan, referred to as Rajputana by the British in the 19th century, was historically ruled by various Rajput families from about the 8th century. While other groups also inhabit Rajasthan, the Rajputs significantly contributed to its distinct culture. These cultural traditions were closely tied to the ideals and aspirations of rulers. Rajput rulers cherished the concept of the heroic warrior who fought valiantly, often preferring death to defeat. Stories of Rajput heroes were preserved in poems and songs recited by minstrels, inspiring others. These narratives, filled with dramatic situations and intense emotions like loyalty, friendship, love, and valor, also attracted ordinary people. Women often played a role in these stories, sometimes as the cause of conflict or as figures who followed their husbands in death, including the practice of sati.

Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story Of Kathak

Dance forms, like heroic traditions, also evolved with regional variations and cross-regional influences. Kathak, a dance form associated with North India today, originated from katha, meaning "story." Kathaks were initially temple storytellers who enriched their performances with gestures and songs. The dance form began developing distinctly in the 15th and 16th centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement, incorporating legends of Radha-Krishna through folk plays called rasa lila. Under the Mughals, Kathak became a courtly dance, developing its unique style in two traditions, or gharanas: Jaipur (Rajasthan) and Lucknow. It gained prominence under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah and later spread to Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh by the 19th century, characterized by intricate footwork and expressive storytelling. Despite being viewed unfavorably by some British administrators, Kathak survived and is now recognized as a classical dance form.

Painting For Patrons: The Tradition Of Miniatures

Miniature painting, characterized by its small size and typically watercolor medium on cloth or paper, developed in various ways. Early miniatures, found in Western India, illustrated Jaina texts. Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan patronized skilled painters who illustrated historical accounts and poetry. These paintings, known for their vibrant colors, depicted court scenes, battles, hunts, and social life, often exchanged as gifts among the elite. With the decline of the Mughal Empire, painters migrated to regional courts, influencing the art of the Deccan and Rajput states. They retained Mughal styles while developing distinct characteristics, with themes from mythology and poetry becoming popular in centers like Mewar and Bundi. The Himalayan foothills saw the development of the Basohli style, noted for its boldness, and later the Kangra school, which embraced lyrical themes from Vaishnavite traditions with soft colors.

A Closer Look: Bengal

The Growth Of A Regional Language

Bengali, the language of Bengal, has evolved from Sanskrit over centuries. While early Sanskrit texts suggest that the language spoken in Bengal was not originally Sanskrit-related, commercial ties with Magadha and the establishment of Gupta control led to stronger linguistic and cultural influence from the mid-Ganga valley. By the 15th century, a common literary Bengali language emerged from dialects spoken in western Bengal. Modern Bengali incorporates words from tribal languages, Persian, and European languages. Early Bengali literature is categorized into two types: those influenced by Sanskrit (like translations of epics and bhakti literature) and those independent of it (such as Nath literature and folk tales), particularly popular in eastern Bengal where Brahmanical influence was weaker.

Pirs And Temples

The migration of people to southeastern Bengal from the 16th century onwards, coupled with forest clearance for rice cultivation, led to the integration of local communities, including fisherfolk and tribal shifting cultivators, with new peasant groups. This period coincided with Mughal rule in Bengal, with the establishment of mosques by officials. Early settlers sought order from community leaders, known as pirs, who acted as teachers and adjudicators and were sometimes attributed supernatural powers. The cult of pirs became popular, with shrines found throughout Bengal. The late 15th century onwards also saw significant temple construction, often supported by lower social groups like the Kolu (oil pressers) and Kansari (bell metal workers). As their socio-economic status improved, these groups expressed their status through temple building. Local deities, once worshipped in village huts, began to be housed in temples, with architectural styles adapting to the traditional double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of thatched huts, leading to the distinctive Bengali architectural style.

Fish As Food

Food habits are often tied to locally available resources. In Bengal, rice and fish are staple foods, prominent even in the diet of the poor. Fishing has been a significant occupation, with references in Bengali literature and depictions of fish marketing on temple and monastery plaques. Although Brahmanas were traditionally restricted from eating non-vegetarian food, the widespread popularity of fish in Bengal led to a relaxation of this prohibition by Brahmanical authorities, as indicated by a 13th-century Sanskrit text that permitted local Brahmanas to consume certain types of fish.